A1c  glycated hemoglobin  AACE  American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists  ACC  acetyl-CoA carboxylase  ADA  American Diabetes Association  Akt/PKB  tyrosine kinase/protein kinase B  AMP  adenosine monophosphate  AMPK  adenosine monophosphate-activated protein  Ang II  angiotensin II  ATP  adenosine triphosphate  BAT  brown adipose tissue  CHOP  CEBP-homologous protein  CEBP  CCAAT enhancer binding protein  CoA  coenzyme A  DPP  Diabetes Prevention Program  EASD  European Association for the Study of Diabetes  eNOS  endothelial nitric oxide synthase  ER  endoplasmic reticulum  FDA  Food and Drug Administration  FFA  free fatty acid  FOXO1  forkhead box protein O1  G6P  glucose 6-phosphate  GDM  gestational diabetes mellitus  GIPR  glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor  GLP-1R  glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor  GLUT1  glucose transporter-1  GLUT4  glucose transporter type 4  GLUTs  glucose transporters  G6P  glucose 6-phosphate, glucose transporter-1  GPR40  G protein-coupled receptor 40  HbA1c  hemoglobin A1c  HGP  hepatic glucose production  HSL  hormone sensitive lipase  IL-6  interleukin 6  INS-1  insulinoma cells in rat  IR  insulin resistance  IRS-1  insulin receptor substrate 1  JNK  c-Jun. N-terminal kinase  Kir6.2  inwardly rectifying potassium/kalium channel  LDs  lipid droplets  LDL  low density lipoprotein  LV  left ventricular  MIN6 cells  mouse insulinoma cells  MAPK  mitogen-activated protein kinases  mPTP  mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening  mTOR  mammalian target of rapamycin  NADPH  nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate  NF-kappaB  nuclear factors-kappa B  NIT-1 cells  insulinoma cells  p70S6K  p70 ribosomal S6 kinase  PA  palmitic acid  NOS  NADPH oxidase  p38 MAPK  p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase  PA  palmitic acid  PCOS  polycystic ovary syndrome  PGC-1α  peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-g coactivator-1α  PI3K  phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase  PKB  protein kinase B  PKC  protein kinase C  PPARα  peroxisome-proliferator activated receptor α  PTP  permeability transition pore  RCT  randomized controlled trial  RISK  reperfusion injury salvage kinase  ROS  reactive oxygen species  SERCA2  reticulum sarcoplasmic Ca2 +-ATPase  RISK  reperfusion injury salvage kinase  Smad3  mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3  SRC-2  steroid receptor coactivator 2  T1DM  Type 1 diabetes mellitus  T2DM  Type 2 diabetes mellitus  TGFβ1  transforming growth factor β1  TLR4  Toll-like receptor  TNF-α  tumor necrosis factor α  TR4  testicular receptor 4  UKPDS  United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study  VLDL  very low density lipoprotein  Metformin  Pancreatic β Cells  Heart failure  Insulin sensitizer  

renal fibrosis  transforming growth factor-beta 1  receptor for activated C-kinase 1  

Autophagy  miR-155  septic lung injury  transforming growth factor-beta-activated kinase-1-binding protein 2  

Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF)  Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-beta 1)  Renal fibroblasts  Collagen  Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)  

IVD  intervertebral disc  IDD  intervertebral disc degeneration  ECM  extracellular matrix  MMPs  matrix metalloproteinases  ADAMTSs  a disintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin motifs  NP  nucleus pulposus  AF  annulus fibrosus  Col I  type I collagen  Col II  type II collagen  IL-1  interleukin-1  MAPK  mitogen-activated protein kinase  MRI  magnetic resonance imaging  TIMP  tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase  NGF  nerve growth factor  BMP  bone morphogenetic protein  TGF-β1  transforming growth factor-β1  SNPs  single nucleotide polymorphisms, miRNAs, microRNAs  LPS  lipopolysaccharide  TNF-α  tumor necrosis factor-α  NF-κB  nuclear factor κB  NO  nitric oxide  SDC4  syndecan-4  RSV  resveratrol  LfcinB  bovine lactoferricin  HO-1  heme oxygenase-1  MSCs  mesenchymal stem cells  IDD  MMPs  ADAMTSs  Col II  Aggrecan